Steve Kerby
OMDE 608
Section: 9040
October 7, 2003

Annotated Bibliography: Elements of Student Support in Distance Education

Berge, Z. L. (1995). The role of the online instructor/facilitator. E-Moderators.com. Retrieved August 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.emoderators.com/moderators/teach_online.html

This article is essentially an annotated listing of best practice recommendations for teaching online. These recommendations are listed under the categories of (a) role of the instructor, (b) pedagogy, (c) social, (d) managerial, and (e) technical. For those who have taught online before and have taken faculty development courses in teaching online, there is likely very little new here. But for instructors new to the online environment, this can be an excellent resource. It is especially interesting that although this article is now over eight years old (about three generations in Internet time), I could not find one single recommendation--of over fifty--that I thought was out of date.

Brindley, J. E. (1995). Learner services: Theory and practice, Distansutbildning i itveckling, Rapport nr. 11 (pp. 23-34). Umea, Sweden: University of Umea.

The major assumption of Brindley's paper is that learner support in ODL is contextual, and the basic point of the paper is to examine components of learner support in order to determine a theoretical framework (as well as models of practice) that would be appropriate for multiple contexts. Perhaps the most essential of those components is that learner services should be integral to the institutional culture and a core component of the institution's business (as opposed to an add on or retention strategy). Brindley examines other components, such as centralization vs. decentralization and staff development, then concludes by suggesting a theory of support services that is unquestionably learner-centered. Although she does not explicitly draw from recent theory of instructional design, her special take on learner services makes this paper a key argument in the movement that is essentially a convergence of instructional design and institutional support structure as colleges and universities turn their focus from the delivery of instruction to creating environments that support student-centered learning.

Dirr, P. (1999). Putting principles into practice: Promoting effective support services for students in distance learning programs. A report on the findings of a survey. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Retrieved July, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.wiche.edu/Telecom/Projects/studentservices/index.htm

There is no question but this is a major study of student support services, and even if it were to have no other value, it can long serve not only as a snapshot of the state of support services in distance learning programs (a comparison point for future studies) at the beginning of the online explosion, but also as a model for future studies. That said, the changes that have taken place in online technology in the past several years (the study was done in 1997 on 1995/96 data) are substantial. The study was done pre-Online Learning Platform and pre-Community Portal. Further, as a consequence of the Online Learning Platform (WebCT, Blackboard, eCollege, etc.) the types of programs delivered, the delivery methods, the institutions that deliver them has changed and evolved to such an extent that the statistics Dirr provides can really only function as comparison points.

Frankola, K.  (2000).  Why online learners drop out.  Workforce.com. Retrieved August, 2002, from the World Wide Web: http://www.workforce.com/archive/feature/22/26/22/index.php

Frankola examines distance education's dirty little "secret"--its extraordinarily high drop out rate. She argues that retention can be increased by "managers" paying attention to high interactivity (especially building "communities") and managerial oversight. Although she uses some higher education institutions in her examples, her focus is more corporate than academic. This online article mostly just states the obvious. The article offers no real research, nor does it offer any new ideas (unless it is a new idea that managers should pay attention to what they are in charge of).

Granger, D., & Benke, M. (1998). Supporting learners at a distance from inquiry through completion. In C. C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education (pp. 127-137). Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.

Granger and Benke argue that (a) student support services should be a component of each area of the education process, from first awareness to graduation day, and (b) the key to successful student support services is: know your learners. They offer an interesting strategy for how an institution can re-vision its student support--to view all components of the current support infrastructure through the "prism" of a learner's profile. Granger and Benke focus specifically on distance education and recognize that the typical open door of DE is the polar opposite of the traditional university's gate keeping function, so they offer very specific recommendations on how to build learner support into the delivery of a DE program. These strategies include use of portfolios and instituting an orientation program. This is a valuable article with sound theory and practical strategies.

King, T. J. (1995). The identification of high dropout risk distance education students by the analysis of student records data. In D. Sewart (Ed.), 17th World Conference for Distance Education: One World Many Voices: Quality in Open and Distance Learning (Vol. 2, pp. 98-101). Milton Keynes, UK: International Council for Distance Education and The Open University.

This short article is a study of research done at the Australian college of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) on using data as a way of identifying student drop outs. King's essential argument is that student record systems should be designed in such a way that academic staff can identify problem students. This dated article is a report on one particular institution that almost certainly has evolved in the nearly ten years since the study was done. Its value is primarily a historical one.

Krauth, B., & Carbajal, J. (2000). Guide to developing online student services. Western Cooperative for Education Telecommunications, Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Retrieved July, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.wiche.edu/telecom/resources/publications/guide/guide.htm

This article (and its accompanying Web site) is an especially effective resource for those who would like a community of practice overview in using online means to provide student support services. This resource not only covers the basic elements (Information for Prospective Students, Admissions, Financial Aid, Registration, Orientation, Academic Advising, Technical Support, Career Services, Library Services, Students with Disabilities, Personal Counseling, Instructional Support and Tutoring, Bookstore, and Services to Promote a Sense of Community), it also provides examples from a number of different institutions. There is no argument or controlling idea here, just advice and examples of how several institutions (mostly in the American West) use online technologies to provide student support services.

McLoughlin, C., and Luca, J.  (2000).  Cognitive engagement and higher order thinking through computer conferencing:  We know why but do we know how?  In A. Herrmann and M.M. Kulski (Eds.), Flexible Futures in Tertiary Teaching.  Proceedings of the 9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 2-4 February, 2000.  Perth:  Curtin University of Technology.  Retrieved February 11, 2002 from the World Wide Web:  http://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/confs/tlf/tlf2000/mcloughlin.html

The point of the article is to find how best to improve the learning environment and create conditions for higher order thinking. In their study of a small cohort of students, McLoughlin and Luca found that online discussions in themselves do not foster higher order thinking. Faculty need to model timely feedback and what they call a scaffolding approach (essentially is a method to foster constructivist learning). This seems obvious, but perhaps it needs to be emphasized. They offer a nice set of references related to critical thinking in online learning environments.

McLoughlin, C., and Marshall, L.  (2000).  Scaffolding:  A model for learner support in an online teaching environment.  In A. Herrmann and M.M. Kulski (Eds.), Flexible Futures in Tertiary Teaching.  Proceedings of the 9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 2-4 February, 2000.  Perth:  Curtin University of Technology.  Retrieved February 11, 2002 from the World Wide Web:  http://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/confs/tlf/tlf2000/mcloughlin.html

The premise of the article is that since online learning involves interaction, collaboration, and negotiation, and since novice online learners do not have these skills, then educators should provide assistance in these areas. McLoughlin and Marshall call this assistance "scaffolding," insisting that the point is to meet the learners at their current level of ability (skills, understanding) and engage them until it is no longer necessary. Scaffolding functions something like a bridge. Their primary argument is that it is necessary to help students become independent learners. Their primary strategy for this is found in their scaffolding metaphor. While some readers may find this paper to be a statement of the mostly obvious, other readers may find the scaffolding metaphor helpful.

O'Rourke, J. (1995). A piece of the jigsaw: Student advising in distance education. In A. Tait (Ed.), Collected Conference Papers, Sixth Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning (pp. 136-145). Cambridge, UK: The Open University.

This article is a conference presentation. The author had a conversation with two educators and reports that teachers do more than just teach; they also motivate students and help them become better people. That insight is the "piece of the jigsaw" in student advising. This article offers little more than another cute metaphor to state the screamingly obvious.

Phillips, M., & Scott, P. (1999). Multimedia advice, guidance and counselling on the Web: A prototype learner's guide. In A. Tait (Ed.), Collected Conference Papers, Sixth Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning (pp. 121-130). Cambridge, UK: The Open University.

This article is essentially a presentation of an interactive student support system streamed from the Web that was planned (in 1999) for students of the Open University in Great Britain. In 1999, the program was made available for evaluation online (though the URL given in the paper does not work, and a search in October 2003 of the KMI site where it was housed turned up no such program). After briefly considering the pros and cons for making such a program available, the article describes the system and provides screen shots of its interface. This article may have some historical interest. It is interesting to see the evolution of student support services and the WWW. But from the perspective of 2003, this particular attempt appears rather jejune. Today, if universities wish to provide such interactive services, they likely use a community portal system or a more sophisticated databse driven Web application.

Phillips, S. E. (1995). The Commonwealth of Learning student record management system. In D. Sewart (Ed.), 17th World Conference for Distance Education: One World Many Voices: Quality in Open and Distance Learning (Vol. 2, pp. 437-440). Milton Keynes, UK: International Council for Distance Education and The Open University.

This article is a report on the use of a specific database software (a pre-Windows version of FoxPro) to develop a Student Registration System in the early nineties for the Commonwealth of Learning (COL). Phillips discusses such matters as reports, sub-menus, online help, training, and documentation. But the software is out of date, and the context is out of date. Database connectivity through online means has evolved so much in the years since this article was published that the article can only have little more than just historical value in the evolution of using data in student support systems.

Robinson, B. (1995). Research and pragmatism in learner support. In F. Lockwood (Ed.), Open and distance learning today (pp. 221-231). London: Routledge.

Although Robinson does not say so explicitly, her article is essentially a call for a theory of learner support (though she recognizes that more research needs to be done in order to lay the foundations for such a theory). She recognizes that most learner support happens in a pragmatic context in response to specific institutional problems-- as opposed to being driven by a theoretical or research supported directive--which makes it difficult to generalize as well as do research. Her call for the development of an inclusive research community (many who do learner support are often not a part of traditional academic research) seems an important one.

Rumble, G. (2000). Student support in distance education in the 21st century: Learning from service management. Distance Education, 21(2), 216-235.

Rumble's article is a excellent overview of the issues in the field of learner-support for distance education. His argument is that academic institutions are increasingly participating in the consumer society and students are increasingly acting like consumers. Consequently, if academic institutions learn lessons from the service community, they can not only perform better academic service, they can also increase student retention--becoming more profitable as well as more effective. Rumble clearly believes that learner support should take advantage of what he calls ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies), noting that these new technologies can help create learner support communities and allow support personnel to be more effective.

Smith, L. (2003). Assessing student needs in an online graduate program. In U. Bernath & E. Rubin (Eds.), Reflections on teaching and learning in an online master program (pp. 255 -266). Oldenburg: Bibliotheks- und Informationssystem der Universität Oldenburg.

Smith first argues for a student self-assessment initiative that would encompass two basic areas: personal (awareness, feelings of competence, goal-setting ability) and professional (communication skills, thinking skills, and leadership skills), but contrary to what the title of the article suggests, the focus of this piece is not so much an assessment of student needs as it is a set of recommendations for ways of supporting students in an online graduate program. What makes the article particularly interesting is that the primary focus of Smith's suggestions falls not on the institution, but on the students in the program. One of her recommendations--a Virtual Institution Project--would require some institutional support, but the balance of her support recommendations falls on the students themselves and other students (student mentoring). Even her suggestion of tutorials and a program manual could be implemented by student portfolio projects. This is a valuable article with smart ideas about student support that can be implemented by a program without significantly increasing cost.

Stephens, K., Unwin, L., & Bolton, N. (1997). The use of libraries by postgraduate distance learning students: A mismatch of expectations. Open Learning, 12(3), 25-33.

This article is a report of a study done by Stephens, Unwin, and Bolton in the United Kingdom on the use of libraries by postgraduate distance learning students. Much of the article discusses the sample and response rate. Essentially, the authors found that students use libraries (often local non-academic libraries) to a greater extent than faculty expect. Further, they found that many course providers apparently do not consider library use when designing their courses. The authors conclude that there needs to be more effective communication among the course providers, librarians, and students if students are to be adequately supported.

Tait, A. (1995). Student support in open and distance learning. In F. Lockwood (Ed.), Open and distance learning today (pp. 232-241). London: Routledge.

This chapter does what one might expect a chapter on student support in ODL to do--it defines the terms and lays out the issues. But like so many such chapters, it seems to belabor the obvious--know who your students are, know your costs, evaluate your system. I found no controlling idea, theory, or argument that made the chapter particularly interesting. The most recent references are nearly ten years old.

Thorpe, M.  (2002).  Rethinking learner support: the challenge of collaborative online learning.  Opening Learning, 17(2), 105-119.

This relatively recent article "rethinks" learner support, primarily from the assumptions of the British Open University system, where "tutoring" has historically been considered a way of supporting a class after it has been produced and delivered. Thorpe challenges those assumption and argues that learner support should be in response to functions (and not systems). She identifies three key elements of responsiveness to students: identity, interaction, and time. Interaction is key, she argues. One especially interesting insight of this paper is that Thorpe recognizes that many online classes "create themselves"; that is, the class structure (and, in a sense, its "body of knowledge") is created with the interaction of the students evolves. Thorpe concludes that there is no single model of learner support for ODL since there is no single institutional model of course design, delivery, student population, etc. But she is encouraged by the "communicative dynamics" that can be created not only by course designers, but by institutions that support online course delivery/creation.

Wolcott, L. L. (1995). The distance teacher as reflective practitioner. Educational Technology(January/February), 39-43.

Wolcott examines online teaching from the point of view of the faculty member being a "reflective practitioner." She stresses the importance of questioning assumptions and constructing new frameworks. That's good, because I found many of her assumptions about online learning to be suspect--at least as I read them in 2003 in the context of online learning, which this article does not effectively address. The article is dated. When she makes judgments about distance teaching, she refers to studies done in the seventies and the eighties. Further, her essential points seem obvious and cliched. Her primary insight is that we need to think about student needs and reflect on our own practice.

Wong, A. T. (1997). Valuing diversity: Prior learning assessment and open learning. In A. Tait (Ed.), Collected Conference Papers, Sixth Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning (pp. 208-216). Cambridge, UK: The Open University.

This article not only defines Prior Learning Assessment as a concept and process, it provides an excellent overview of the institutional and social challenges of implementing such a program. The primary strategy for developing a PLA program is the portfolio process. This article provides a nice set of guidelines for portfolio development. Wong recognizes that PLA and Open Learning share common goals, such as the importance of (a) connecting the academic experience with the work experience, and (b) focusing on the needs of learners in planning for student support services. PLA and Open learning also share common challenges; namely, the importance of buy-in of faculty and staff. This is an excellent article and should be of wide interest to all students of Open Learning and Distance Education.